Rabbinic Contestations of Authority

The following well-known text from the Babylonian Talmud (redacted ca. 600 C.E.) has had an enormous influence on scholarly accounts of the relation between divine authority and human authority in talmudic rabbinic Judaism. [Regarding a certain kind of oven, R. Eliezer rules that it is ritually pure and the sages rule that it is ritually impure.] It was taught: On that day, R. Eliezer responded with all possible responses, but they did not accept them from him. He said to them, “If the law is as I say, let this carob [tree] prove it.” The carob uprooted itself from its place and went 100 cubits—and some say 400 cubits. They said to him, “One does not bring proof from a carob.” The carob returned to its place. He said to them, “If the law is as I say, let the aqueduct prove it.” The water flowed backward. They said to him, “One does not bring proof from water.” The water returned to its place. He said to them, “If it [the law] is as I say, let the walls of the academy prove it.” The walls of the academy inclined to fall. R. Joshua rebuked them, “When sages argue with one another about matters of law, what is it to you?” It was taught: They did not fall out of respect for R. Joshua, and they did not straighten up out of respect for R. Eliezer, and they are still inclined. He said to them, “If it is as I say, let it be proved from Heaven.” A heavenly voice went forth and said, “What is your problem with R. Eliezer, since the law is like him in every place?” R. Joshua stood up on his feet and said, “It is not in Heaven” (Deuteronomy 30:12). What is “It is not in Heaven?” R. Jeremiah said, “We do not listen to a heavenly voice, since you already gave it to us on Mt. Sinai and it is written there, “Incline after the majority” (Exodus 23:2). R. Nathan came upon Elijah. He said to him, “What did the Holy